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The Cathar Crusades and the Beginning of the Inquisition
1209-1229 CE: The 1st Papal Inquisition. By the 13th century, the dream of a lasting crusader kingdom in the Holy Lands was starting to fade. Pope Innocent III then turned the zeal of the crusaders against fellow Christians. In 1202, the Fourth Crusade was launched which later captured Constantinople. Next, in 1209, Innocent III launched a crusade against the Cathars in southern France (Languedoc region). This bloody action, known to history as the Albigensian Crusade, would directly lead to the establishment of the first Inquisition. The Albigensian Crusade (so named, because the French city of Albi was a Cathar stronghold), lasted for 20 years, from 1209 to 1229. While authorized by the pope, the actual fighting was carried out primarily by secular forces, especially under Simon de Montfort. The suppression of the Cathar heresy established new "standards" for ferocity for the Roman Church in dealing with its own flock. Perhaps the most famous example was on July 22, 1209, when the city of Beziers was sacked, with over 20,000 men, women and children killed by crusaders. The event will forever be framed in history by the words of papal legate Arnaud, whom, when asked if Catholics should be spared during the assault, answered "Kill them all, for God knows His own". Wholesale burnings of Cathars were carried out during the Crusade, including 400 burnt after the fall of Lavaur in 1211, and 94 burnt after the fall of Casses in the same year. It was against this backdrop that Pope Gregory IX instituted the Papal Inquisition in 1227/31. While the Albigensian Crusade had wiped out most of the Cathar strongholds, there were still heretics to be hunted down and burned -- many of whom had gone into hiding during the years of the Crusade. Examples of post-Crusade slaughter of the Cathars include 183 burned in Montwimer (Marne) in 1239, and the burning of 215 Cathar perfecti at the Castle of Montsegur in 1244 (sometimes referred to as the Massacre at Montsegur.) And while the Cathars were the initial targets of the Inquisition (so much so that, for many years, the term "Cathar" was used synonymously with "heretic"), the scope of the Papal Inquisition would eventually range much wider and further than the Cathars. Ultimately, it would include victims such as the Waldensians, Fraticelli (a splinter group of the Franciscans), the Knights Templar, and (much later) -- Protestants. By 1233, the Dominicans (the order founded by St. Dominic in 1217) were given the primary charter to act as Inquisitors, joined shortly after by the Franciscans (founded by St. Francis of Assisi in 1209/10). Today, it can initially be difficult to understand why some ascetic groups (such as the Dominicans and Franciscans) were openly welcomed by the church (and indeed, were the first Inquisitors), while other ascetic groups (the Waldensians, the Cathars, the Fraticelli) were hunted down and burned at the stake. The answer is clear -- the former groups submitted to the authority of the Church, while the latter groups ultimately rejected the authority of pope and clergy. It should be noted that prior to the institution of the Papal Inquisition in 1227/31, local bishops had the authority to investigate, and try heretics in local ecclesiastical courts. What made the Inquisition distinctive is that the Inquisitors theoretically answered only to the pope -- not to the local bishop, nor even to the heads of their Order. This autonomy allowed the Inquisition to act as an independent tribunal, able to go where it wanted, when it wanted, and try whom it wanted -- with no interference allowed from local secular or ecclesiastical authorities. (Those that tried to interfere with the autonomy of the Inquisition were, of course, branded as heretics themselves). The use of torture was authorized in 1252 by Pope Innocent IV. In Spain, it is estimated that torture was used in about 1/3 of all cases. The purpose of torture was to exact confessions. Since some people questioned whether confessions received under torture were valid, the accused would be asked to verify what they had admitted under torture several hours later. If they refused to validate their confession, they would be subject to more torture. Popular methods of torture included flogging, burning, the rack, and the roasting of feet over burning coals. In Spain and Italy, the garrucha was popular -- the victim's hands would be tied behind their back, and they'd be lifted off the ground by a rope tied around the wrists. "Their form of proceeding is an infallible way to destroy whomsoever the inquisitors wish. The prisoners are not confronted with the accuser or informer. Nor is there any informer or witness who is not listened to. A public convict, a notorious malefactor, an infamous person, a common prostitute, a child, are in the holy office, though no where else, credible accusers and witnesses. Even the son may depose against his father, the wife against her husband." - Voltaire The methodologies of the Inquisition are horrifying. The Inquisition created an atmosphere where the denouncing of real or imagined sins of neighbors, business partners, even family members was encouraged. The accused had almost no rights -- no right to a lawyer, no right to know who their accusers were, and no right to know the nature of the charges leveled against them. Torture was used in many cases to extract confessions. Typically, the cycle of the Inquisition would start with the Inquisitor and his entourage (Tomas Torquemada traveled with 50 mounted bodyguards, and 200 foot soldiers) visiting a particular town or parish. The Inquisitor would often preach to the population in the town square or church about the sin of heresy. An Edict of Faith was often published by the Inquisitor, giving detailed instructions as to how to spot a heretic (either in other people, or in yourself!) A 1-4 week Term of Grace followed in which voluntary confessions were sought. Those that stepped forward voluntarily and admitted to their heresy were often given limited punishment. Also during this period the Inquisitor would start accumulating information from denouncers -- those that were reporting heresy in others. This was, of course, a covenient way to do away with a business or personal rival (although there was one safeguard, which will be described later). Sometimes the Inquisitor would call upon a whole parish or city to testify. In 1245/6 inquisitors in the Toulouse area called on 8,000-10,000 people to testify! After the period of grace, everyone in the parish or city that had not voluntarily confessed was at risk of being denounced. The Inquisition only required evidence of two witnesses for prosecution. And the inquisitors were not very choosy about who could bring the denunciation. Wives and husbands could testify against each other. Convicted heretics and convicted criminals could denounce others. Once a person had been accused, he or she was politely summoned to appear before the Inquisition. Such an appearance was not a requirement, but failure to appear was taken as evidence of guilt. During the Inquisiton, several inquisitors wrote "handbooks" for budding inquisitors. The following excerpt gives advice to the inquisitor on how to handle an early interrogation of a suspect: "The inquisitor should behave in a friendly manner and act as though he already knows the whole story. He should glance at his papers and say: 'It's quite clear you are not telling the truth' or should pick up a document and look surprised, saying: 'How can you lie to me like this when what I've got written down here contradicts everything you've told me?' He should then continue: 'Just confess -- you can see that I know the whole story already'". - Nicholas Eymeric, Directorium inquisitorium Inquisition trials were held in secret. Suspects were not told the names of their accusers; however, they would be asked for a list of people that might bear them ill will. If the names of the denouncers were on the list, the accused was often set free (clever suspects would often present very long lists!) The accused were not able to call witnesses in their own defense, nor (during most of the Inquisition) were they allowed to have counsel present. (In some areas, lawyers for the accused were allowed, but if the accused were found guilty of heresy, the lawyer could also be so charged, for having defended them!) The accused were often put into Inquisitorial prisons during the time between arrest and sentence. In Spain, this period would often last for 3-4 years. During imprisonment, the accused usually had to pay their own expenses. This fact, and the fact that suspects found guilt of heresy often had to forfeit their property, meant that the Inquisition was often targeted against the wealthy rather than the poor. During the period of imprisonment, the accused was not allowed to talk to anyone other than the inquisitors. Since the primary stated goal of the Inquisition was to save souls, suspects were continually encouraged to confess to their heresy. Those that admitted their "guilt", and were willing to give the Inquisition names of other potential heretics, were often let off with penances. Penances could include: -Pilgrimages to local shrines, or to Rome, Compostella, Canterbury, etc. -Being forced to wear large yellow crosses on their clothing. In Spain, these were referred to as sanbenito. -Imprisonment in Inquisitorial prisons -Scourging or lashing (Spain) -The harshest sentences (such as complete confiscation of property or burning at the stake) were reserved for two types of offenders - those that refused to recant of their heresy (often the case, for example, with Cathar perfecti), and "relapsed" heretics. Relapsed heretics could be those that had been charged by the Inquisition at an earlier time, and had recanted of their heresy, or, in Spain, baptized Jews or Moslems that continued to secretly practice their faith might automatically be considered "relapsed" heretics. Once a relapsed or unrepentant heretic was found guilty, they were handed over (or "relaxed") to the secular authorities for punishment. This was not just an jurisdictional issue. The Church had a motto - "the Church shrinks from blood" (ecclesia abhorret a sanguine). Based on this motto, the Church itself would not administer the death sentence. Rather, this was left to local secular authorities. The chosen method for administering capital punishment -- burning at the stake, was partially chosen because it did not shed blood. The families of heretics that were burned typically had their property confiscated by the secular authorities. In Spain, descendents of heretics could not serve in public office, couldn't enter holy orders, and couldn't become physicians, tutors of the young, or advocates. The final scene of the Inquisitorial process was the Act of Faith (an auto-da-fé in Spain and 16th-century Italy, sermo generalis in the early days of the Papal Inquisition). Often, the accused did not hear their sentence until the day of the auto (those that were sentenced to death would be told the night before). The Act of Faith was held in public, typically in a town square or (in Italy), inside a local church. They were often huge public spectacles. In 1660, an auto-da-fé held in Seville lasted for three days, and was attended by 100,000 people. On June 30, 1680, an auto-da-fé held in Madrid lasted for 14 hours, and had 50,000 spectators. The longest part of the auto-da-fé was the reading of sentences. With often hundreds of convicted heretics, the sentencing could take many hours. Once the sentences had been read, those sentenced to death were led to the place of burning (quemadero in Spanish). Those that repented after being sentenced to death would be offered the courtesy of being garroted to death before being burned. Those that refused to recant (often Cathar perfecti, Lutherans and Calvinists in Italy and Spain, etc.) were burned alive. Those burned at the stake would often have ghoulish company. It was common practice to sentence the dead to burning. The dead would dutifully be disinterred and placed next to the still living victims. As horrifying as this spectacle might seem, there was a pragmatic reason for charging, sentencing, disinterring, and burning the dead -- the goods of their families could be confiscated. Ask us anything, we will do our best to help. To contact us please use our...
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